![]() ![]() difficile is an obligate anaerobic pathogen, the vegetative cells are unable to survive outside of a host in the aerobic environment. difficile as “an urgent threat” regarding the antibiotic associated threats to the United States ( Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (US), 2013).īecause C. difficile cells and high prevalence of CDI in some hospitals, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has listed C. Due to the inherent antibiotic resistance of C. difficile and frequent disruption of the normal gut flora may also contribute to the high recurrence rate ( Johnson, 2009). Meanwhile, poor host immune response to C. ![]() difficile spores may still be present within the patients gut and germinate to the vegetative form after completion or discontinuation of antibiotic treatment ( Cornely et al., 2012). Though recurrence is not fully understood, one of the reasons for high recurrence rate is that C. Though effective, CDI recurrence after the initial treatment can still reach up to 15–35% in treated patients ( Leffler and Lamont, 2015). Currently, antibiotics are the standard treatments for CDI (i.e., vancomycin, metronidazole, or fidaxomicin Evans and Safdar, 2015). difficile causes over 500,000 infections per year in the United States alone, resulting in an estimated 29,000 deaths and an estimated cost of $1–3 billion ( Dubberke and Olsen, 2012 Lessa et al., 2015). difficile infections (CDI) that range from mild diarrhea to pseudomembranous colitis and potential death ( Lessa et al., 2012). It is found widely in the mammalian gastrointestinal (GI) tract and can cause toxin-mediated C. difficile and the corresponding therapeutic strategies that are aimed at these important processes.Ĭlostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile Lawson et al., 2016 Oren and Garrity, 2016) is a Gram-positive, spore-forming, toxin-producing, anaerobic bacterium which has established itself as a leading cause of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea in the developed countries ( Sebaihia et al., 2006). This review is to summarize recent advances on the regulation of sporulation/germination in C. Recent studies have shed light on the regulatory mechanisms of C. Meanwhile, it also produces spores that are responsible for the persistence and recurrence of C. difficile produces toxins (TcdA and TcdB) that are required to initiate the disease. difficile spores will germinate and outgrow to produce the pathogenic vegetative form. Spore formation and their subsequent germination play critical roles in C. Due to the strictly anaerobic nature of the vegetative form, spores are the main morphotype of infection and transmission of the disease. 2Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United StatesĬlostridioides difficile is a Gram-positive, spore-forming, toxin-producing anaerobe, and an important nosocomial pathogen.1Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States. ![]()
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